On the right: Foreign-influenced or foreign-style cross-collared robes closing to the left side instead of the right side. Traditionally, Chinese style upper garment closes to the right. China and its surrounding regions by non-Han Chinese people. The introduction of Hufu-style garments and attire in China occurred by the time of King Wuling of Zhao. This term is also used to refer to clothing of foreign origins in ancient China. 284 the Sasanid Persian, the Turkic people (Tujue), Uyghur (Huihe or Huihu), Tibetans (Tufan), and the Khitans (Qidan) who lived in the north and west regions of the empire. The traditional way to distinguish between Hufu and Hanfu, Chinese clothing, is by the direction in which the garment collar closes. The youren collar is an important symbol of the Han Chinese, and traditionally Chinese robes and Chinese jackets must cover the right part of the body. However, the Chinese did also wear clothing which overlaps in the front and is closed on the left side, in a style known as zuoren (Chinese: 左衽). Shang dynasty in China. The coat known as zhe (褶; sometimes referred as xi), typically used as part of the kuzhe, was also a xi (襲) according to the Shiming. Left: Figure of a warrior, wearing a form of kuxi which closes to the left (左衽), a feature associated with Hufu-style clothing, Northern Qi. Right: Figure of an officer wearing a type of kuxi which closes to the right (右衽) in a typical Chinese way, Northern Wei. According to the Shuowen Jiezi 《說文解字》, a form of paofu, known as xi (襲), was a robe with a zuoren closure. The use of zuoren, however, was typically associated with funeral practices. According to ancient Chinese beliefs, the only moment a Han Chinese was supposed to close their clothing in the zuoren-style is when they dressed their deceased. Based on this belief, the left lapel needs to be outside (i.e. youren) to indicate that the power of the yang is suppressing the yin, and was thus reserved for the clothing of living people. This funeral practice stemmed from ancient Chinese beliefs in the yin and yang theory, where it is believed that the left represents the yang aspect and stands for life, whereas the right represents the yin aspect, which stands for death. However, if the yin aspect surpasses the yang, which is represented by the zuoren, then this form of clothing is to be worn by the deceased. Therefore, it was taboo in ancient China for a living person to wear zuoren. Yuan dynasty, left lapel ru continued to be worn in some areas of the Ming dynasty despite the dynasty being led by Han Chinese. Based on Confucius’ sayings, pifa zuoren (simplified Chinese: 被发左衽; traditional Chinese: 被髮左衽; pinyin: bèifà zuǒrèn; lit. During his time, unbound hair and clothing closing to the left were the clothing customs of the northern nomadic ethnic groups which were considered as barbarians by the Han Chinese. By the Han dynasty, since Confucius himself was the first person to use the phrase pifa zuoren to refer to Non-Zhou dynasty people, this phrase became a common metaphor for primitiveness. 103 When used by the ancient Chinese literati, the concept of pifa zuoren became a phrase, which held the symbolic of foreign people who were living a barbarous and civilized lifestyle; this concept also became a way to emphasize the customs differences between the Han people and other ethnic minorities and draw the line to distinguish who were considered as civilized and barbarians. Moreover, from the standpoint of the Huaxia culture, pifa was a way to reject refined culture and being turned into a barbarian. 267 and in the female clothing of the Yuan dynasty when it was a common practice for some Chinese women to change the direction of their collar to the left side. During the Warring States period, King Wuling of Zhao (r. Some non-Chinese ethnicity who adopted Hanfu-style sometimes maintain their left lapels, such as the Khitans in the Liao dynasty. Hufuqishe (Chinese: 胡服騎射; lit. Hufu to facilitate horse riding. During this period, the term ‘Hufu’ was coined after the ‘Hu’ people, who were northern nomadic people. In the Shiji《史記》, Zhao Shijia (lit. King Wuling undertook those sartorial reforms in the 19th year of his reign in 307 BCE. However, according to the Bamboo Annals, an annalistic history of Wei unearthed from a Wei King tomb in 279 BC, the Zhao court had ordered commanders, officers, and their families, and garrison guards to adopt Hefu (Chinese: 貉服) in 302 BC. Under this sartorial and military reform, all the soldiers of King Wuling had to wear the uniforms of Donghu, Linhu, and Loufan in battles. 257 The choice to adopt cavalry and the departure from the chariot warfare from the 8th to 5th century BC showed the influence of the Xiongnu, who were the northern neighbour of the Zhao state. The reality or the extent of King Wuling’s reforms is a disputed subject among historians. The term ‘He’ used in the Bamboo Annals is a synonym of the term ‘Hu’ which refers to the northern nomadic people. The Hufu adopted by King Wuling can be described as shangxi xiaku (Chinese: 上褶下袴; pinyin: shangxi xiaku; lit. Chinese: 靴; lit. Left: Figurine of the foreign Hu wearing what appears to be a round collar garment, Warring States period. Right: Bronze belt Hooks, Warring States period. However, the Hufu-style trousers introduced by King Wuling were characterized with loose rises and differed from the indigenous ku (Chinese: 袴) of the Chinese; the Hufu-style trousers could be described as form of kun (Chinese: 裈); the kun were trousers which had rise to cover the crotch areas. A conical cap which resembles Scythian hats was also adopted as part of the Hufuqishe. For example, the hat adopted by King Wuling was less pointy that the Scythian hat and were decorated with a marten tail. In the Warring States period, the wearing of short upper garment worn by the Chinese which is belted with a woven silk band and had a right-opening also influenced the Hufu; this form of attire was worn together with trousers allowing greater ease of movement. This form of clothing attire was most likely worn by peasants and labourers. As the kun-trousers did not conform to the traditional culture of the Han, the kun was mainly worn by warriors and servants, but kun were not used by the general population as people found it hard to adjust the use of kun in their daily activities. The kun however influenced the development of jingyi by transforming the jingyi into becoming longer, stretched up to the thighs regions, and the waist become enclosed however the rise and rear of those trousers were open which allowed for the purpose of urinating and defecting; this then became the pattern of ku-rousers. Of note of importance, although the Hufu-style attire adopted by King Wuling appears to be similar to Scythian clothing, the Hufu which appears in classical Chinese text were actually different from the historical Scythian clothing. This form of ku-trousers was more accepted in the Han tradition than the kun, and evolved into other forms of ku trousers of the later dynasties, such as qiongku (trousers with hip and rise area closed in the front and tied at the back with multiple strings) which was designed in the Western Han dynasty. Kun trousers introduced by King Wuling later developed into other forms of trousers in the later period, such as dashao (trousers with extremely wide legs) which appeared in the Han dynasty and dakouku (trousers which were tied under the knees). These forms of trousers were Chinese innovations. Some forms of hanfu worn in the Eastern Han dynasty started to be influenced by the costumes of the Hu (胡) people and the gown with round collar started to appear. However, in this period, the round collar gown was more commonly used as an under-garment. This was a period of cultural integration and cultural exchange between the Han Chinese and the other ethnic groups. The Han Chinese living in the South liked the driving clothing of the Northern minorities which was composed of trousers and xi (a close-fitting short robe with round neck and tight sleeves). 317 For example, the trousers tied with chords below the knee worn in the kuxi (褲褶; lit. Six dynasties were Chinese inventions and were not nomadic clothing. 317 However, not all stylistic innovations in clothing came from the Northern minorities in this period. The round collar robe introduced by the Xianbei had tight sleeves which allowed for greater ease of riding when horse riding. 317 The Kuzhe (袴褶) of the late Northern dynasties was a creation of Han culture which was developed through the assimilation of non-Han culture. The Xianbei were originally a branch of the Donghu which were defeated by the Xiongnu but they later claimed to be descendant of the Yellow Emperor as the Chinese. Since the Northern Wei dynasty, the shapes of the Han Chinese robes started to be influenced by the round collar robes. 317 However, the other figures found in the tomb of Lou Rui are dressed in styles closer to the traditional Hanfu style, showing wide sleeves and lapels closing to the right side. 183,185-186 In the murals of Lou Rui tomb of Northern Qi (dated to 570), a procession of riders appear to be clothed in quekua and wearing boots and headgear. Xianbei clothing had zuoren opening (i.e. closed on the left side). Xianbei women typically wore a long robe under a jacket instead of trousers and boots. The cape and hood was another nomad outfit which was distinctively Xianbei. A form of kuxi. The cross collar closing to the left showing foreign influence or style instead of the right closing. The cape and hood was another nomad outfit which was distinctively Xianbei. The trousers are however Chinese trousers. Riders from the murals from the Tomb of Lou Rui appear to be wearing quekua. The Xianbei rulers continued to wear own distinctive Xianbei clothing in order to maintain their ethnic identity and avoid merging with the Chinese majority population. This ban of Hufu also included the ban on Xianbei clothing. 284,319 However, under the sinicization policies under Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei, Hufu (Northern barbarian clothing) was banned. Many members of the Tuoba Xianbei adopted Han Chinese clothing, language, surnames and customs. The ban also included non-Han language at Northern Wei court, and the changing of the royal family surname Tuoba to Yuan. 131 After the fall of the Northern Wei, male figures started to reappear wearing Xianbei-style clothing on Buddhist monuments and tomb murals; however, the Xianbei-style clothing worn by women are no longer seen in the art of China after the year 500 AD. 131 However, this sinicization policies were also met with opposition by other ethnic minority groups. These re-emerging Xianbei clothing following the fall of the Northern Wei also showed minor changes. In the tomb of Xu Xianxiu (d. 407-409 After the year 500 AD, women would appear in Chinese-style clothing while men could be found dressed in either Xianbei-style or Chinese-style clothing. Some female servants depicted on the tomb mural of Xu Xianxiu appear to be dressed in clothing which looks closer to the Xianbei style garment than the Chinese-style clothing due to the use of narrow sleeves; however, this form of clothing is not representative of the Xianbei style clothing worn before the year 500 AD. Xu Xianxiu, a Northern Qi aristocrat, is depicted wearing Xianbei-style tunic, trousers, and boots and what appears to be a cloak of Central Asian fashion while his wife is wear a Chinese-style robe. Under the influence and the demands of the Chinese population, most Sogdian attire in China had to be closed to the right. Their robes would often be buttoned up the neck forming the round collar but occasionally the collar (or lower button) would be undone to form lapel robes (Chinese: 翻领胡服; pinyin: Fānlǐng húfú; lit. The Sogdians were also called Hu (Chinese: 胡) in Chinese. The Sogdians living in Central Asia and China wore turned-down lapel robes which was popular the Sogdian region of Central Asia in the Western Asia. Qiuci and Gaochang but originated in Western Asia but spread eastwards through the Sogdians in Central Asia. The Sogdians in China and Sogdia had both lapels down following the Iranian tradition or the tradition of the Saka people living in the Khotan Oasis. It was also not rare for Chinese Sogdians to wear their robes with only the left lapel which was a distinguishing feature as the only left lapel robe was rarely found in Sogdia. This dressing customs of wearing lapel robe was later inherited and developed in the subsequent dynasties, in the Tang and Sui dynasties. The foreign influences prevalent during Tang China included cultures from Gandhara, Turkestan, Persia and Greece. The stylistic influences of these cultures were fused into Tang-style clothing without any one particular culture having especial prominence. The Tang dynasty also saw the ready acceptance and syncretization with Chinese practice, of elements of foreign culture by the Han Chinese. An example of foreign influence on Tang’s women clothing is the use of garment with a low-cut neckline. In the Tang dynasty, the descendants of the Xianbei and the other non-Chinese people who ruled northern China from 304 to 581 AD lost their ethnic identity and became Chinese; the term Han was used to refer to all people of the Tang dynasty instead of describing the population ruled by the Xianbei elites during the Northern dynasties. 272 However, just like women in the Tang dynasty period incorporated Central Asian-styles in their clothing, Central Asian women also wore some Han Chinese-style clothing from the Tang dynasty and combined elements of the Han Chinese-style attire and ornament aesthetic in their ethnic attire. The round-collar jacket and gown, tied with a belt at the waist, became a typical form of fashion for both Tang dynasty men and women as it was fashionable for women to dress like men in the Tang dynasty. 2 was brought from the Silk Road. 1 In the early Tang dynasty, the influence of hufu was described as a pastiche of Turkic, Uyghur, Sogdian and Sasanid Persian clothing. Hufu-style in this period included jacket with open-front with narrow-fitting sleeves, striped, tapered trousers, woven boots, and weimao (i.e. wide-brimmed hat with an attached gauze veil). Other forms of Hufu included: mili (羃䍦), a burqua-like headwear, veil-less hat called humao. Almost all figurines and mural paintings depicting female court attendants dressed in men’s clothing are wearing Hufu. During this period, the yuanlingpao could be turned into a lapel robe (influenced by those worn by the Sogdians) by unbuttoning the robes and the lapel robes could be turned into the yuanlingpao when buttoned. In some unearthed pottery figures wearing lapel robes dating from the Tang dynasty, it found that the yuanlingpao had three buttons on the collar. The lapel robes worn during the Tang dynasty was categorized as Hufu instead of Hanfu; the use of these styles of robes showed the popularity of Hufu during the Tang dynasty, especially during the Wuzetian period (684-704 AD). It also popular for people to use fabrics (such as brocade) to decorate the collars, sleeves and front and their gowns; this clothing decoration customs is known as ‘partial decorations of gowns’ and was influenced by the Sogdians of Central Asia who had entered China since the Northern and Southern dynasties period. 27 The Yuanlingpao however was categorized as Han clothing. It was also fashionable for noble women to wear Huihuzhuang (回鶻装; Uyghur dress, which is sometimes referred as Huihu-style), a turned-down lapel voluminous robes with tight sleeves which were slim-fitting, after the An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 AD). In 840 AD, the Uyghur empire collapsed, the Uyghur refugees fled to Xinjiang and to the Southeast of Tang frontier to seek refuge, and in 843 AD, all the Uighur living in China had to wear Chinese-style clothing. Central Asian roundels (i.e. a form of partial decoration) which would run down at the centre of the robe. 2 and more traditional Han style clothing was restored. The Jin dynasty was founded by the Jurchens. After the High Tang dynasty period, the influences of Hufu progressively started to fade and the clothing started to become more and more loose. In 1126, the Jurchen orders all Chinese people living in the conquered areas to shave their hair on the front and to dress only in Jurchen style. 281 The order to adopt Jurchen hairstyle and clothing style was an Inner Asian practice of forcing people who were living on conquered lands to show their subservience to their conquerors. 281 Under Hailing Wang, who was Pro-Chinese emperor, Chinese people in Honan were allowed to wear Chinese clothing. 281 Under Emperor Shizong, the Jurchen were prohibited to be dressed in Chinese fashion and were forbidden from adopting Chinese personal and last names; this was because during his time (1161-1189), many Jurchen appeared to have adopted Chinese behaviours while the Jurchen had forgotten their own national traditions. 281 This order however does not appear to have been observed in a strict manner. The rulers of Jin gradually abandoned their own customs, including clothing and language for Chinese ones, especially after having moved their capital to Kaifeng. 281 By 1170, Chinese men had adopted either Jurchen or mixed Jurchen-Han clothing; Chinese women, especially elite women, however maintained Han-style clothing although the clothing were outdated according to the standards of the Song dynasty. The Mongol of the Yuan dynasty impacted the clothing worn by the Chinese. However, Han Chinese clothing continued to co-exist along with Mongol clothing. Different styles of Mongol clothing were shared and used among different social classes. Example of Mongol clothing and hats which influenced the Han Chinese were the boli hat (Chinese: 钹笠帽), terlig, jisün, Mongol-style dahu. The customs of Goryeo clothing became popular at the end of the Yuan dynasty among Mongol rulers, aristocrats, queens and imperial concubines in the capital city. During this period, men’s casual clothing follows those of the Han Chinese; aristocrats women mainly worn Mongol clothing while common women wore ruqun and banbi. 2005 study by senior researcher Choi. Following the fall of the Yuan dynasty, Emperor Taizu promulgated an imperial edict to restore Tang-style clothing and hats in the first year of his reign. In the twenty fourth year of Hongwu (1391), there was an imperial edict which banned the wearing of Hufu; this was specifically for women of gentry. Several other bans were made regarding the wearing of nomad clothing, which was recorded in the Ming dynasty historical records (for example, in 1442, 1491, etc.). King Huiwen of Zhao. Throughout the Ming dynasty period, there were several prohibitions on Mongol style clothing; however, certain clothing of the Ming dynasty influenced or derived from the Mongol clothing continued to be used, such as yesa and dahu. 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